the second historical novel by Crystal King, is set in Renaissance Rome, detailing the mysterious life of one of the most famous chefs in history. His recipe for fried eggs is very simple: Scappi's section on pies includes savory (partridge, pheasants, cockerels, veal, fish, goat and lobster) and a bevy of sweet pies such as quince, marzipan, melon, apple, pears, peach and cherry. Opera dell'arte del cucinare. It was drank by children and adults alike because the water was often suspect, and they drank much higher quantities of alcohol than we generally do today. The French adopted this dish at the beginning of the nineteenth century as sabayon. Others say it was created during World War II as a dessert made for soldiers to pick them up with the caffeine and alcohol. White sugar wasn't easily available until the 17th century, and through most of the Renaissance these sculptures would have been made with some form of brown sugar and then colored with vibrant vegetable dyes. Desserts. If you would like to skip directly to these recipes go right ahead! One of the most interesting recipes in the cookbook is that of fried chicken. They could be elaborately made from gold or silver, in the shapes of scimitars, cupids or mermaids, and were often threaded with a chain to hang about the neck or from a girdle. They inform us of important cultural practices pertaining to love and marriage at the time. Fresco by Giulio Romano, Palazzo del Te, Mantua c. 1524-1535. Some of the most common spices include: Apothecaries sold a variety of items, not just medicines, sugar and spices. Their bakery of authentic Italian desserts and pastries. When he entertained Pope Leo X, he grandly threw all his gold and silver plate into the Tiber river after the meal to show them that wealth didn't matter to him. The role of a meat carver was a special one, not beholden to the steward or the maestro of the kitchen. The big wheels in the wall in the background is where they placed each basket and then spun it around to the cardinals locked in the Sistine Chapel. Dining in wealthy Renaissance households started with the place in which the table was set up. Even the popes had a court dwarf. Chicken with Fennel. Cut 'em some slack. . ", At the table with good friends and family you do not become old.". The original book is not a more than a hand’s length long, but it is thick, with over 1,000 recipes and woodcuts that demonstrate cooking tools and techniques. In addition to buffoons and jesters, banquets would have musical accompaniments, plays performed between courses, acrobats, belly dancers, and sometimes (outdoors) even fireworks. If it was a bread made from mixed grains, it was only suitable for the poorest of Italians. Dio mio. World Alcohol and Drinking History Timeline. Turn your oven to 325º and place the pan in for 5 minutes. “Bah, the feast I did for Emperor Charles was far more elaborate. Thousands of Italian desserts feature nuts, which grow in every region of the country.There are nut-flavored granitas, gelatos, and semifreddos, ⦠One such dwarf, Dottor Boccia, was court jester to Julius III, Marcellus II and Paul IV. —zabaglione, a lovely eggy custard dish which is popular as an gelato flavor in Italy too. He was so proud of his son, the son who would only know of him as an uncle. Wine was also a common denominator, Grape vines were easy to grow all over the country, and even peasants could make their own wine. aken from Giovanni Bockenheym: La cucina di papa martino V. Asparagus braised and fried with saffron and leek, Mushrooms blanched and fried with onion and spices, Kidney beans baked with onions and spices, Roasted partridge or fowl with pomegranate glaze, "The plot itself — part secret-code mystery, part love story — moves like a well-paced meal.". 10 am - Welcome and Introduction to the Course.This course concentrates on the practical skills used in the fifteenth and sixteenth century Italian kitchen, with a particular emphasis on re-creating the recipes of Maestro Martino and Bartolommeo Scappi. Everyone ate out of the same pot. They also used all parts of the animals. It says it is French recipes but it goes on to explain that these are Italian Renaissance recipes brought from Italy ⦠These recipes were common and most had been previously published in other pamphlets and books of the time. Description: Made from milk, cream, sugar and flavouring ingredient with less air and more flavour, causing gelato to be a much denser and richer frozen dessert than any of its relatives. By this time in history, white bread was common, but the whiter the bread, the more expensive it was. To give you a sense of what I mean by ubiquitous, in Scappi's cookbook, over 900 of its 1000 recipes contain sugar in them. The cookbook is filled with sumptuous recipes and feast menus which glorify the wealth of the princes of the Catholic church. Spices and almond milk, for example, were beyond their budgets but made the tastiest desserts, so these were only eaten at the table of a noble. The connection between a saint and fried dough depends on the legend heard. When Pius IV came into power, one of his very first acts was to expunge the dwarf. That email doesn't look right. My favourite part? As Italy came into the Renaissance period, everything about dining became more refined. They were often given to other households as gifts or traded among families. Each diner would have a spoon and a knife, but it wasn't until toward the end of the 1500's, that the fork became commonplace at the Italian table. (1570). When I was researching my first novel, FEAST OF SORROW, I kept coming across a cookbook that was mentioned in a number of Italian culinary compendiums—L'Opera of Bartolomeo Scappi, or the "works" of Bartolomeo Scappi. Cantuccini and Vin Santo While tiramisùmay be the most well known of Italian desserts (a Florentine version is known as zuccotto), the most widely offered dessert in ⦠Battista Bonfadino. Travelers stopped in them when they were spending time in the city but locals could also partake in simple fare and local wines. With such an innuendo historical connotation, the cannoli became more boisterous in its symbolism “of Carnevale’s carnal and culinary debauchery.”. Gnocchi, in particular, may have Roman origins, but the first written attestation of their presence on Italian tables comes from 15 th century texts. The World of Renaissance Italy encyclopedia tells us about Dr. Baldassare Pisanelli of Bologna, who wrote in 1585 that "the rich man's proper diet will sicken the poor man just as quickly as the poor man's diet will cripple the noble. He was known to carve roasts and other foods so expertly that he never touched them with his fingers, but only with knives and forks that had been provided for that purpose. Gelatins were also common, especially after making so much soup. These dwarves were both considered natural buffoons based upon their looks, but were also often used as court jesters and were an important part of the entertainment of a feast. Bartolomeo smiled after him. ", Banquets could last for many hours and entertainment was needed to keep the guests occupied. There was also more than one occasion where birds might fly from a pie. “We can make much of it in December and hang it to dry. "Sugar paste used in the Renaissance period is comparable to wedding cake fondant we see today. deeply focused on the idea of balancing food against the individual temperament, n the son of the Venetian Doge was married to Princess Maria Argyropoulaina, made with a paste of sugar, water and gum arabic, L’insalata di Caterina – A Renaissance salad, To make torteloni with the flesh of capons, To make small tortelli with pork belly, and of other things, that are called vulgarly little rings, To make a dish of tortellini of herbs in the Lombard style, To make tortelletti of fresh peas or beans, White ravioli or tortelli with a pastry shell, Castlemere Cookies has a bunch of recipes here, The Edible Monument, the Art of Food for Festivals, The Banquet-Dining in the Courts of the Renaissance, Pasta - macaroni, tortellini, tortelloni, vermicelli, tagliatelle, Pies and crostate - pumpkin cheesecake pie, turkey, peach, pear, cherry and apple. “And we do this every year? Some even say that tiramisu has a longer lineage dating back to 17th century Tuscany where similar layered desserts were seen. Ciambelle have two forms in today's Italian cooking, the kind that are similar to bagels, and a sweet cookie variety. She brought with her from Byzantium a set of golden forks. For example, Scappi describes a particular layered dish to include one layer of calf eyeballs! His book Libro de Arte Coquinaria (The Art of Cooking) (c. 1465) is considered a landmark in Italian gastronomic literature and a historical record of the transition from medieval to renaissance cuisine. And a gelatin with the Pope’s face? These dwarves were both considered natural buffoons based upon their looks, but were also often used as court jesters and were an important part of the entertainment of a feast. Vincenzo Cervio was one of the most famous, and his book Il Trinciante, describes all manner of carving meats in aria—in the air—with the meat falling perfectly onto the plate of the noble he served. "It seems to me that I should have done nothing, after having in the five books instructed you about mastering various sorts of dishes suitable for healthy people, had I not shown you as well how to go about making prepared potions, broths, concentrates, pastes, barley dishes and many other preparations needed by the sick and convalescent, all of which preparations I have proved with many gentleman when they have been indisposed..." ~ Bartolomeo Scappi, L'Opera, Book VI, Dishes for the Sick. When Scappi does include them, they tend to be in the form of various soups and stews. There were numerous markets and vendors that hawked all manner of meats, fish, vegetables, breads and pastries. It's very similar to fried chicken of today, but with the odd flavoring of cinnamon, nutmeg and cloves. Libro de arte coquinaria. See more ideas about Renaissance food, Food, Medieval recipes. any of us today are familiar with a recipe first found in. Most noble courts employed (or owned) a. or two. Turkeys found their way to Italy during the Renaissance, but it wasn’t until the latter half of the century that they were deemed suitable for eating. In his cookbook, Bartolmeo Scappi describes many sugar and butter sculptures. He had a fun nickname that people called him, Panunto, which was the name of an oily bread recipe he was known for, and he gave the cookbook the same name as well. Frammento di un libro di cucina del sec. The work did not present any major innovations in recipe writing, but its merit lies in its organization of complex service elements and its definition of assignments, relationships and hierarchy. This pub shows up in my current novel-in-progress! Don’t those take time to have carved?”, Bartolomeo smiled. The first known reference to the preparation of sturgeon caviar in Italy is in Messisbugo's books. Feasts would often have as many as ten courses served, with a wide variety of sweet and savory dishes served at each one. There isn’t a fully inspired modern cookbook based on Scappi’s recipes, unfortunately, but in the sidebar here you'll see a link to the companion cookbook I created for The Chef's Secret, which includes delicious recreations of Scappi's recipes by chefs, food historians, food bloggers and cookbook authors. In fact, all the descriptions of food in the passage above were taken from the menus in Scappi's cookbook. “How do you keep these details straight?”. They hosted a contest searching for the greater frozen dessert. When you think of the Renaissance I'm guessing images of Michelangelo sculptures, or the sumptuous gowns worn by the likes of Lucrezia Borgia are more likely to come to mind than what foods might have been served during that era. Odd History: Zeppoles are usually eaten during Festa di San Giuseppe or Saint Joseph’s Day. For me, that place is a little Italian imported foods store. In many cases families could come for a meal, and the osteria would serve the wine. One of the oldest pubs in the world is Osteria del Sole which got its start in 1465 in Bologna. Scappi was also the first person to describe, in great detail, exactly what goes on in a papal conclave. Originating from the pastel-coloured coastal stretch of the Italian Riviera, curzetti stampae (or Corzetti stamps), are a fresh pasta unique to the northwestern Italian region of Liguria. He was a master swordsman, held his own titles and lands, and having one serve you was a great honor. Ingredients: ~ 1 cup instant polenta ~ 4 cups vegetable broth ~ 1 cup crumbled feta cheese But the Venetians were not taken with the practice and she was roundly denounced, and one clergyman said, "God in his wisdom has provided man with natural forks—his fingers. “How many platters did you say we are serving?” Giovanni asked. “Sì, sì.” Giovanni shuffled off, his eyes still on the paper. It contains extraordinary insight into the workings of a pope’s private kitchen. When they reached the end of the time in court, they were often given gifts and pensions. The wealthy could afford elaborate pastries, pies and fritters. Right, so, take that image, but smash it together with Christmas. Giovanni perched himself on a stool at his regular table in the kitchen. Scappi’s cookbook contains the first European recipes for preparing turkey. Italians go all-out when it comes to the holidays, preparing special dishes and desserts ⦠is an Italian proverb that means, "At the table with good friends and family you do not become old.". Have them delivered to the Vaticano farm and we can slaughter them when we are ready.”, Giovanni took the paper and scanned it. It was the first printed cookbook to circulate throughout Italy. The setting of the table was not that dissimilar to what we know today. Looking for Italian recipes? Aug 6, 2017 - Explore Jan Creevey's board "Italian Renaissance Feast" on Pinterest. Another says that Mary had no food for the family but heard a voice which told her to go into Joseph’s shop, pick some chips off the floor and to fry them. Renaissance Patisserie had their baker's dozen of trials in the first few weeks after opening. This now typically contemporary French dessert was first created during the... Apple and Pear Renaissance Pie Recipe. Afterward, he had his servants pull up the nets from beneath the water to retrieve it all. Then, much later during the European Renaissance, biscotti reemerged as a local sweet dessert preferably served with Vin Santo wine to be dunked in. Nothing on or around campus matches up to it. Every now and then, I get massive cravings for this European imported foods store’s Italian desserts. The courses could sometimes include as many as 100 dishes each, which meant that a very fancy feast for the Pope or an Italian prince may have as many as 1,000 dishes served throughout the meal! Take three pound of very fine flower well dried by the fire, and put to it a pound and a half of... To Make an Excellent Cake (GOOD). Forks started to appear in 7th century Byzantium, but it wasn't until 1004 whe, The markets themselves were full of vendors that could provide a quick snack to eat on the go. “So, I’ve heard.” Giovanni did not seem convinced. In Scappi’s cookbook we also see the first recipes that rely heavily on dairy, particularly butter and cheeses. I wasn't disappointed. Not much is known about Scappi’s life save that he was born in the town of Dumenza in Northern Italy (less than a mile from the current Swiss border) around 1500, that he worked for a handful of Cardinals and popes, that he had a sister named Caterina and a nephew named Giovanni Brioschi, and that he died on April 13, 1577. Dottor Boccia, was court jester to Julius III, Marcellus II and Paul IV. Later, in the 1500s, it became even more famous when it was served to impress the visiting Spanish King in a glorious feast. Description: Probably the most widely-known and loved Italian treat â the cannoli is a fried pastry tube filled... Tiramisu. Take wyne and hony and found it togyder and skym it clene, and see+ it long. As mentioned earlier, sugar also began to make its way to Italy from the new world. Wine was always diluted with water or ice, and could often be flavored with spices, honey or licorice. While most denizens of a city took most of their meals at home with friends and family, there were a variety of options for individuals looking for a public place to eat. There’s just something about that place and the food from there that can’t be replicated or bullshitted. (Source: jirkaejc/Depositphotos.com) Use these authentic Renaissance dessert recipes to make your own Renaissance sweetmeats. ),” “Hercules slashing at the mouth of a lion,” “a camel with a dark king above,” and “a unicorn with its horn in the mouth of a serpent.”. La cacciata dell'invitato indegno (The expulsion of the unworthy guest) by Fra Semplice da Verona (1589 – 1654). Abiding by this diet was particularly prohibitive for nobility looking to show off their wealth through food and banquets. By the latter part of the Renaissnce, tastes had begun to shift from the cloying spices and acidic flavors of the Middle Ages (think sauces similar to the salad dressings of today, made with wine, bitter grape juice, or vinegar). And food played a role at funerals, including at Easter when a big feast was held to celebrate the Resurrection. 15th Century. Turn once and continue baking for ⦠In his book, Cervio also describes a table brought out from the kitchen with the meat he was to carve. Barley gruel was considered especially helpful to the sick and Scappi describes several barley gruel recipes including one meant for traveling. Some common grapes of that era include prosecco, lambrusco, sangiovese, malvasia, nebbiolo, albano and chianti. One thing that would have been at all of Bartolomeo's banquets were sugar sculptures. Ciambelle - (see the image of the ciambelle vendor above). Meals were served in one large chunk, from which everyone present cut a piece for themselves. Domenico Romoli is a bit dear to my heart, having decided he would make a great villain for THE CHEF'S SECRET. he guests would be provided with water (often scented with rosewater) and a towel to wash their hands before the meal began. Here's YouTube to the rescue: Eventually the art of napkin folding took the place of some sugar sculpture displays. This lovely little fritter is fried, topped with confectionary sugar, and can be filled or topped with custard, jelly, pastry cream, or a butter and honey mixture. Mi dispiace, Uncle, but is making this much food even possible?”, Bartolomeo waved a hand as though the quantities were nothing. Yes, there really were 1,167 dishes planned for the anniversary luncheon to celebrate the first full year of Pope Pius V's reign. Butter and oil also became popular to thicken sauces. There are a number of recipes in L'Opera di Bartolomeo Scappi that are familiar to us today or at least form the basis of many foods we find in modern cooking. For He raised over her the sword of His divine justice, so that her whole body did putrefy and all her limbs began to wither.”. On this page, I'll take you on a mini culinary tour of everything Italian Renaissance food. It wasn't until the late medieval period that forks began to show up on noble tables, and in 1570, Bartolomeo Scappi shows us the first fork ever depicted in print, appearing together with spoon and knife. Cooks were often called upon to cure an ailment just as a doctor might be summoned. Nov 6, 2018 - Explore Annita Bacani's board "Renaissance food", followed by 119 people on Pinterest. Easy Italian Dessert Recipes - Enjoy the Taste of Old Italy which is reduced till it's "clear as amber" then gelled. Vegetables weren't that common in the cookbook--they were mostly from the ground, and were considered "low" foods. Since Scappi cooked for clergy and the Pope, he was very familiar with the need for special seafood-based menus for the over 150 lean or fasting days a year in which no meat could be eaten. After a baby was born, friends and family brought the new mother food that was nourishing and sweet. The sculpture you see here, by Italian sculptor Giambologna, is from 1560. A quick note...some of the text in this section is taken directly from Wikipedia for expediency and for the sake of aggregation. Fried chicken - but brined in vinegar spiced with cinnamon, cloves and nutmeg! The credenza also held elaborate plates that helped to demonstrate the wealth of the palazzo's owner. Platina even used nearly half of Martino’s book as the technical base of this treatise, Opera On Right Pleasure and Good Health., published for the first time in Rome in 1474 in Latin. When they reached the end of the time in court, they were often given gifts and pensions. Sometimes these mixtures, just like the pates of today, were served on slices of bread. Add the pine nuts, the butter and the sugar to a medium saucepan over low heat. One terrace even has a water organ that would play music at intervals for guests (and you can still see it play if you visit). Italian Renaissance food, like much of what was going on in other aspects of life, encompassed every sensory experience possible. Creamy and pure, they can be made in a variety of ways. Aside from the wealthy flaunting this spice, it also became nearly ubiquitous in most Renaissance recipes that graced a noble table. At Villa Lante you can see a table inspired by Pliny who said he had floating dinner plates at his villa in Tuscany. Dishes consisted of many tastes all at once â sweet, salty, sour, bitter, spicy. When it hardens, this sugar paste has the color and substance of Necco Wafers. Interested in making your own sugar sculptures? designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to amazon.com. The love of sugar sculptures spread throughout Europe. We know that forks were available in the world of ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome, but were likely used to hold meat when carving, or lifting meats from pots or the fire. Gaia Borzicchi, courtesy of A Small Kitchen in Genoa. They were often given to other households as gifts or traded among families. Scappi's fame rose to a height when his cookbook, In the cookbook, Scappi refers to himself as a “, ,” which means “private chef” but translated literally, it reads “secret chef.”. Depending on the pastry chef, the exposed filling may be coated with chocolate shavings, candied fruits, or even pistachios. Even the popes had a court dwarf. Amidst my melancholy and nostalgia, I started wondering how my favourite Italian sweets came to be. ‘Saccharum’ print showing the sugar production process, c. 1580–1605. Tostee. Pastry castles with live birds? Poultry was not carved up before being put on the table. It’s a much weightier tome than the original, with a great deal of additional commentary and fascinating information to extend the knowledge of the reader. In the late 1400s the designation of a specific room in which to dine began to take shape, Many villas had elaborate dining rooms (or sala) with beautiful painted ceilings and easy access for the servers to appear with food from the kitchen. That led to people breaking their long fast, by having a small snack upon waking, usually a little bit of bread, and perhaps some butter or cheese. Most noble courts employed (or owned) a court dwarf or two. Tables would be layered with tablecloths which would be removed at each course to provide a clean slate for the next set of dishes. We have one hundred fifty men between the Vaticano kitchen and the Pope’s private kitchen, and I am asking the Roman Cardinali to send men from their palazzi as well.”, Giovanni ran his hand through his dark locks, a nervous habit Bartolomeo knew well. Odd History: Its cylinder and ridged shape along with its cream filling were intended as a tribute to an um, ahem, male organ. Italy was the birth place of the Renaissance. Omelettes and fried eggs were very commonly made for the sick and Scappi describes a number of ways to poach eggs in milk, wine and sugar. Description: Probably the most widely-known and loved Italian treat – the cannoli is a fried pastry tube filled with sweetened ricotta cheese usually scented with cinnamon and sometimes rosewater. . The sculpture here of the lion and the bull was featured at the 2015 exhibition at Palazzo Pitti recreating one of the most amazing wedding feasts, depicting the proxy marriage of Maria de’ Medici and Henry IV of France in 1600. The Italian Renaissance (Italian: Rinascimento [rinaÊÊiËmento]), a period in Italian history that covered the 15th (Quattrocento) and 16th (Cinquecento) centuries, developed a culture that spread across Europe and marked the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity. Bread was the main source of calories for the poor, but it was enjoyed by the wealthy as well. Beluga sturgeon abounded in the Po River in the 16th century and they were a frequent capture. “Someday you’ll feel comfortablcg even bigger feasts.” Bartolomeo remembered how nervous he had been the first time he had to execute a large banquet for Cardinale Campeggio. I also want you to arrange for the snails and for all the fowl deliveries, which we should start on right away. and people pulled even birds as big as pheasants apart with their hands." Based on references from his cookbook, we know he was also intimately familiar with dishes from various locations, including Ravenna, Bologna and Milan, where he may also have lived at some point in his life. Food was also medicine and the cook played a role alongside the doctor in medieval and Renaissance life. The late medieval period and early Renaissance was also deeply focused on the idea of balancing food against the individual temperament,hearkening back to the writings of the ancient physicians, Galen and Hippocrates. It’s the closest I get to an old world Italian marketplace without the price of a plane ticket. It was a lot for someone so young to manage—he was barely twenty—but Bartolomeo had faith in his apprentice. I love visiting Italy now and discovering foods that have its roots in that of the Renaissance, such as when I first had passatelli in Bologna. The credenza became so important that you'll often see it depicted in paintings, or painted on the walls of a palazzo such as in the one below. Many of us today are familiar with a recipe first found in L’Opera—zabaglione, a lovely eggy custard dish which is popular as an gelato flavor in Italy too. Rosewater or sugar and cinnamon were commonly sprinkled on savoury food such as roast meats just before serving. Italian Libro de arte coquinaria Gamarelli Marini Shrimp with Fennel Seed Italian Libro de arte coquinaria Insalate Italian Herb Salad Italian De Honesta Voluptate et Valetudine Menestra d'herbette Herb Soup Italian Libro de arte coquinaria Minestra Asciutta Dry Soup (Pasta) Italian ⦠Many of them would be difficult for a home baker to make today purely for the size and scale of the recipes. He began scratching notes on another piece of parchment as he scanned the list he had just been handed. In the Renaissance sugar was a costly luxury and to sculpt elaborate designs from it was one of the ultimate demonstrations of wealth and power in this time. These beautiful (and inedible) sculptures were all the rage in the Renaissance as sugar became more and more available from the New World. Further down in the garden, he also had a beautiful dining area built on top of a natural grotto. This dish can be used as a side dish for your feast. But there were also osterie, (inns) or fraschette, wine shops. orcupine, bear, guinea pig, hedgehog, dormouse, crane, peacock, turtle and lamprey eels, to name a few. When Pius IV came into power, one of his very first acts was to expunge the dwarf. His entire book is online here and it's full of amazing illustrations of a luxurious bygone era. Excellent Small Cakes. Recipes during this era were not nearly as heavily spiced as in the Middle Ages, but they would still be a little cloying to modern audiences, relying heavily on rosewater, sugar, pepper, ginger, nutmeg and cinnamon. But don't stop there, here are a few more recipes (either re-creations or inspired modern versions) to whet your appetite for all things Renaissance Italy: L’insalata di Caterina – A Renaissance salad - via JulsKitchen, Renaissance Lasagne with Hand-Rolled Pasta - via Splendid Table, Want to continue your historical adventure to the world of the past? Scappi also describes how to travel with a nobleman and cook good meals on the road. You can check it out for free here: hbspt.cta._relativeUrls=true;hbspt.cta.load(3811406, '86f09fcf-12a1-42e0-b39b-feee16b60a8c', {}); Alongside some new re-creations, I include a few recipes from that cookbook on my blog, but with more information: Lemon Black Pepper Ice Cream with Honey Fig Jam. Italian Renaissance Cookery ; SATURDAY. They also used all parts of the animals. Food marked religious holidays. The delivery of the food itself was part of the entertainment. Roasted Chicken with Orange Juice Glaze. See more ideas about Medieval recipes, Italian renaissance, Renaissance. Allrecipes has more than 170 trusted Italian recipes complete with ratings, reviews and cooking tips. Sun-dried Tomato and Olive Polenta . but both depended on two things: bread and wine. . Flour Combine the flour and the bread crumbs together. It was later published in Venice in 1487 in Italian and then spread across Europe, having been translated into French, German and English.